- |||||||||| pentylenetetrazole (BTD-001) / Balance Therap
Journal: Neuroprotective Effects of Anodal tDCS on Oxidative Stress and Neuroinflammation in Temporal Lobe Epilepsy. (Pubmed Central) - Jan 28, 2026
Anodal tDCS exerts neuroprotective effects in acute and chronic epilepsy by modulating oxidative stress, neuroinflammation, and the astrocytic/nitric oxide pathways, supporting its potential as a non-invasive adjunct therapy for cognitive and cellular protection. Future studies should investigate its effects on hippocampal glutamatergic and GABAergic pathways, as well as calcium homeostasis.
- |||||||||| pentylenetetrazole (BTD-001) / Balance Therap
Journal: Potential Effect of Belladonna in the Management of Convulsions in Zebrafish (Danio rerio) and In Silico Mechanistic Approach. (Pubmed Central) - Jan 26, 2026
The effect of homoeopathic Belladonna on pentylenetetrazole (PTZ)-induced seizures in zebrafish (Danio rerio) was assessed in this study...Collectively, these findings support the potential of Belladonna as an anticonvulsant and could be a potential candidate for the management of epilepsy. However, further exploration for epilepsy management through the underlying mechanisms of action is needed in the future.
- |||||||||| phenytoin / Generic mfg., pentylenetetrazole (BTD-001) / Balance Therap
Journal: Novel 7-Substituted-1,2,4-Triazolopyrimidines targeting Nav1.2 channels as low-neurotoxicity antiepileptic agents. (Pubmed Central) - Jan 24, 2026
In pursuit of novel antiepileptic agents with improved safety profiles, a series of novel 7-substituted-[1,2,4]triazolo[1,5-a]pyrimidine derivatives were synthesized and evaluated for antiepileptic activity using the subcutaneous pentylenetetrazole (Sc-PTZ) and maximal electroshock seizure (MES) models in vivo...The antiepileptic efficacy of 6c surpassed that of the reference drugs phenytoin and valproate...These results suggest that compound 6c is a promising lead candidate for the development of novel antiepileptic agents with high efficacy and low neurotoxicity. Preliminary in vitro assessment in rat liver microsomes indicated moderate metabolic stability for 6c, supporting its potential for further development.
- |||||||||| pentylenetetrazole (BTD-001) / Balance Therap
Preclinical, Journal: The Effect of Music Exposure on Epileptic Seizures Induced by Pentylenetetrazole in Rats. (Pubmed Central) - Jan 22, 2026
The observed trends toward shorter seizure latency and higher seizure severity in the music group may reflect a possible context-dependent increase in excitability, although these findings remain preliminary due to the small sample size. Given the complex nature of music's effects, further studies employing larger cohorts, and complementary neurophysiological methods are warranted.
- |||||||||| pentylenetetrazole (BTD-001) / Balance Therap
Preclinical, Journal: In vivo, in silico effects of sakuranetin as a multi-target nutraceutical against PTZ-induced seizures via GABA restoration and BDNF/TrkB activation. (Pubmed Central) - Jan 3, 2026
This study evaluated the protective effects of sakuranetin-a flavonoid found in edible Prunus species-against pentylenetetrazole (PTZ)-induced seizures and neurochemical changes in mice...These findings suggest that sakuranetin has substantial, multi-target anticonvulsant effects by restoring neurotransmitter balance, enhancing antioxidant capacity, suppressing neuroinflammation, and revitalizing BDNF/TrkB signaling. Given its dietary origin, sakuranetin warrants further investigation as a potential nutraceutical candidate for managing epilepsy.
- |||||||||| pentylenetetrazole (BTD-001) / Balance Therap
Preclinical, Journal: Visual detection of seizures in mice using supervised machine learning. (Pubmed Central) - Dec 16, 2025
Our results show that seizure events and overall intensity can be rigorously quantified directly from overhead video of mice in a standard open field using supervised approaches. These results enable high-throughput, non-invasive, and standardized seizure scoring for neurogenetics and therapeutic discovery.
- |||||||||| pentylenetetrazole (BTD-001) / Balance Therap, acetylcysteine solution / Generic mfg.
Journal: A fluorescent probe for concurrent detection of cysteine, homocysteine, and superoxide anion. (Pubmed Central) - Dec 12, 2025
These findings suggest that low-dose rational polytherapy with TPM and BRV may enhance seizure control and ameliorate associated neuropsychiatric and oxidative imbalance. In pentylenetetrazole (PTZ)- and acetaminophen (APAP)-induced models of epilepsy and liver injury, BPC revealed notable alterations in Cys, Hcy, and O2
- |||||||||| pentylenetetrazole (BTD-001) / Balance Therap
Journal: DHX9 Aggravates Epilepsy by Promoting STAT1 Phosphorylation to Increase Oxidative Stress and Apoptosis. (Pubmed Central) - Dec 10, 2025
In pentylenetetrazole (PTZ)- and acetaminophen (APAP)-induced models of epilepsy and liver injury, BPC revealed notable alterations in Cys, Hcy, and O2 This study reveals the important role of DHX9 in epilepsy pathogenesis and elucidates the molecular mechanism by which DHX9 directly interacts with STAT1 and promotes its phosphorylation, thereby activating downstream oxidative stress and apoptotic signaling pathways, ultimately aggravating epileptic neuronal injury.
- |||||||||| pentylenetetrazole (BTD-001) / Balance Therap
Journal: Temporal Dynamics of c-Fos Expression in a Zebrafish Larva Model of Pentylenetetrazole-Induced Seizures. (Pubmed Central) - Dec 6, 2025
The observed peak expression at 45 min suggested an optimal window for evaluating c-Fos expression in the PTZ-induced seizures model of zebrafish larva. These findings provided a valuable reference for selecting experimental endpoints in zebrafish larva seizure studies and enhanced the reliability of c-Fos as a marker of neuronal activation.
- |||||||||| pentylenetetrazole (BTD-001) / Balance Therap
Journal: Design and Development of Sulfonamide-Chalcones as Antiepileptic Candidates: Computational and Zebrafish-Based Validation Approaches. (Pubmed Central) - Dec 1, 2025
All compounds showed a favorable safety profile and antiepileptic potential, as validated using a pentylenetetrazole (PTZ)-induced seizure zebrafish model. In conclusion, this integrated computational-experimental approach highlights the therapeutic potential of sulfonamide-chalcone hybrids, particularly 4-(trifluoromethyl)-N-(4-(3-(4-(trifluoromethyl)-phenyl)-acryloyl)-phenyl)-benzenesulfonamide (compound 20), as potential positive allosteric modulators of the GABAA receptor, offering a viable pathway for the development of next-generation AEDs with improved efficacy and safety profiles.
- |||||||||| pentylenetetrazole (BTD-001) / Balance Therap
Preclinical, Journal: Modified Pentylenetetrazole Model for Acute Seizure Induction in Rats. (Pubmed Central) - Nov 27, 2025
The behavioral and ECoG assessments of seizures showed a strong agreement in the latency and duration (r = 0.97, p < 0.0001; r = 0.81, p < 0.05, respectively) with minimal bias in Bland-Altman analysis, confirming that both methods provide statistically comparable and interchangeable measures of seizure characteristics. Our findings highlight the robustness and reproducibility of this modified PTZ-induced acute seizure model, offering an improved preclinical platform for studying seizure pathophysiology and screening for novel therapeutic interventions.
- |||||||||| pentylenetetrazole (BTD-001) / Balance Therap, pilocarpine / Generic mfg.
Journal: Planarian behavioral screening is a useful invertebrate model for evaluating seizurogenic chemicals. (Pubmed Central) - Nov 24, 2025
By standardizing both experimental approach and analysis methods and making them available, this work can serve as a framework for future testing of chemicals for seizurogenic potential in planarians. Classic seizurogenic chemicals induce convulsions in planariansA 48-well exposure paradigm allows for rapid testing of seizurogenic compoundsAutomated analysis replaces manual scoring of seizure-like planarian behaviorAcute parathion exposure causes seizure-like activity in planarians.
- |||||||||| pentylenetetrazole (BTD-001) / Balance Therap
Journal: Anticonvulsant Activity of 12-Epinapelline N-Oxide, a Diterpene Alkaloid of the Atisine Series. (Pubmed Central) - Nov 15, 2025
The anticonvulsant activity of the diterpene alkaloid 12-epinapelline N-oxide isolated from the aboveground part of Aconitum baicalense was demonstrated in experiments on mice with modeled maximal electroshock-induced seizure and pentylenetetrazol-induced seizures. Taking into account the mechanism of seizure development in the studied models, we can hypothesize that the anticonvulsive activity of the alkaloid is determined by its interaction with Na+ channels and GABAA receptors.
- |||||||||| pentylenetetrazole (BTD-001) / Balance Therap, pregabalin / Generic mfg., diazepam / Generic mfg.
Preclinical, Journal, IO biomarker: Brain-targeted intranasal pregabalin niosomes for the treatment and prevention of teratogenic congenital malformations in PTZ-induced seizures in pregnant rats without passing placental barrier. (Pubmed Central) - Nov 12, 2025
The rats were divided into five groups: (1) a saline-administered negative control group of pregnant rats, (2) a positive control group receiving PTZ (3 doses on the 15th, 17th, and 19th days of pregnancy) without treatment, (3) an oral PGB group also administered PTZ 3X, (4) an intranasal PGB group with PTZ 3X, and (5) a standard-treated group receiving intraperitoneal diazepam (DIAZ plus PTZ 3X)...The niosomal PGB formulation effectively reduced nuclear factor kappa-light-chain-enhancer of activated B cells (NF-?B) and Bcl-2-associated X protein (BAX) expression in maternal and fetal brain tissues, potentially mitigating embryotoxicity and exhibiting antioxidant, antifibrotic, and anti-inflammatory effects. This protective action may help prevent PTZ-induced seizures, underscoring the therapeutic promise of niosomal PGB for pregnant women with acute epileptic seizures.
- |||||||||| pentylenetetrazole (BTD-001) / Balance Therap, phenobarbital / Generic mfg.
Preclinical, Journal: Neuroprotective Effects of Ammi visnaga Fruit Hydroalcoholic Extract in a PTZ-Induced Seizure Mouse Model: Emphasis on Neuroinflammatory Pathways. (Pubmed Central) - Nov 3, 2025
This study aimed to investigate the neuroprotective, anticonvulsant, anti-inflammatory, and antioxidant properties of Ammi visnaga fruit hydroalcoholic extract in a pentylenetetrazole (PTZ)-induced seizure model in mice, with a particular focus on hippocampal oxidative stress and cytokine modulation. Forty adult male NMRI mice were randomized into Six groups including: both healthy negative control and PTZ?+?saline control, PTZ-only, phenobarbital-treated, and Ammi visnaga-treated (25, 50, and 100
- |||||||||| pentylenetetrazole (BTD-001) / Balance Therap
Journal: Olig2-specific loss-of-function Slc35a2 results in hypomyelination and spontaneous seizures. (Pubmed Central) - Oct 27, 2025
These findings challenge the neuron-centric view of epilepsy and suggest that targeting glial dysfunction may offer novel therapeutic opportunities. Further studies are warranted to delineate cellular interactions driving epileptogenesis and to explore glia-centered treatment strategies for drug-resistant epilepsies.
- |||||||||| pentylenetetrazole (BTD-001) / Balance Therap, tramadol hydrochloride / Generic mfg., ibuprofen / Generic mfg.
Preclinical, Journal: Pharmacological and molecular insights into linalool-rich Coriandrum sativum essential oil: Anticonvulsant, analgesic, anti-inflammatory, and antioxidant potential in rodent models. (Pubmed Central) - Oct 20, 2025
by 49.8%, and IL-6 by 26.5%, effects comparable to ibuprofen...Its integrated efficacy profile and favorable safety indicators highlight CsEO as a promising phytotherapeutic candidate for managing seizures, pain, and inflammation. Further studies should explore chronic models, pharmacokinetics, and formulation strategies to optimize clinical applicability.
- |||||||||| pentylenetetrazole (BTD-001) / Balance Therap
Journal: The role of Methyl-CpG binding domain 3 (Mbd3) protein in epileptogenesis. (Pubmed Central) - Oct 8, 2025
We demonstrate that seizures induced by pentylenetetrazole (PTZ) cause a transient, brain area-specific increase in Mbd3 protein levels in the entorhinal cortex and amygdala...Significantly, seizures themselves transiently elevate Mbd3 levels, suggesting a potential vicious circle that may aggravate disease progression. Targeting the pro-epileptic effects of Mbd3 could therefore represent a novel therapeutic approach in epilepsy.
- |||||||||| pentylenetetrazole (BTD-001) / Balance Therap
Preclinical, Journal: GABAergic interneurons contribute to the fatal seizure phenotype of CLN2 disease mice. (Pubmed Central) - Oct 8, 2025
Vgat-Cre; TPP1LAMP1 mice also died more readily after pentylenetetrazole-induced seizures, indicating that interneuron-specific TPP1 deficiency renders these mice more susceptible to seizure-induced mortality...Electroencephalogram monitoring revealed that DREADD-mediated activation of interneurons markedly accelerated the onset of spontaneous seizures and seizure-associated death in Vgat-Cre; Cln2R207X/R207X mice, suggesting that modulating interneuron activity can exacerbate epileptiform abnormalities. Taken together, these results provide new mechanistic insights into the underlying etiology of seizures and premature death that characterize CLN2 disease.
- |||||||||| radiprodil (RGH-896) / AbbVie, GRIN Therap, pentylenetetrazole (BTD-001) / Balance Therap
Journal: Inhibition of GluN2B-containing N-methyl-d-aspartate receptors by radiprodil. (Pubmed Central) - Sep 25, 2025
Emodin alleviates oxidative stress and neuroinflammation by modulating NRP2 and NF-?B pathways, suggesting therapeutic potential in epilepsy. In addition, radiprodil delays the onset of seizures (458
- |||||||||| pentylenetetrazole (BTD-001) / Balance Therap
Journal: Toxicology and safety pharmacology investigations on the nervous system: 2024 industry survey. (Pubmed Central) - Sep 21, 2025
Most respondents reported using a modified Irwin's test (90?%) added to toxicology studies (80?%) and/or as a standalone study (71?%), a major change from the 2015 survey where most respondents reported using a standalone study. Survey results reflect an industry shift towards the development of new therapies classified as biologics, cell and gene therapies.
- |||||||||| pentylenetetrazole (BTD-001) / Balance Therap
Review, Journal: Epilepsy and autophagy modulators: a therapeutic split. (Pubmed Central) - Sep 12, 2025
However, autophagy inhibitors also have an anticonvulsant effect. Therefore, the aim of the present mini-review is to discuss the potential role of autophagy in the pathogenesis of epileptogenesis and epilepsy, and how autophagy modulators affect epileptogenesis and epilepsy.
- |||||||||| pentylenetetrazole (BTD-001) / Balance Therap
Preclinical, Journal: Neuroprotective Efficacy of Microwave-Assisted Synthetized 2-(5-Cyclopropyl-6-Thioxo-1,3,5-Thiadiazinan-3-Yl) Acetic Acid in Mitigating Cognitive Deficits in Pentylenetetrazole-Induced Mice Model. (Pubmed Central) - Sep 4, 2025
Treatment with the synthesized compound significantly restores antioxidant enzyme levels (catalase, peroxidase peroxidation, superoxide dismutase, and glutathione), reduces lipid peroxidation, improves cognitive performance, and suppresses the expression of inflammatory proteins (p-JNK, TNF-?, and COX-2). These findings suggest that 2-(5-cyclopropyl-6-thioxo-1,3,5-thiadiazinan-3-yl) acetic acid possesses strong antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and neuroprotective properties, making it a promising candidate for the treatment of oxidative stress-related neurodegenerative disorders.
- |||||||||| pentylenetetrazole (BTD-001) / Balance Therap
Journal: Design, Synthesis, and Pharmacological Activity of the N-(4-(1H-1,2,4-Triazol-1-yl)phenyl)-substituted-amide Derivatives. (Pubmed Central) - Aug 28, 2025
Compounds 6f (maximal electroshock (MES), 50% effective dose (ED50) = 13.1 mg/kg; subcutaneous pentylenetetrazole (scPTZ), ED50 = 19.7 mg/kg) and 6l (MES, ED50 = 9.1 mg/kg; scPTZ, ED50 = 19.0 mg/kg) showed the best activity in MES and scPTZ tests...Elevated plus maze (EPM) assay results showed that compounds 6f and 6l possessed anxiolytic effects, and their effects correlated with the binding sites of benzodiazepines (BZs) in the GABAA receptors. Molecular docking was performed to investigate the interactions of the studied compound 6l with the GABAA receptors on the molecular level.
- |||||||||| Review, Journal: Drugs and Nutrients in Epilepsy: Vitamin B6 and the Ketogenic Diet. (Pubmed Central) - Aug 28, 2025
Our analysis highlights frequently cited associations between epilepsy and specific drugs and highlights the importance of supplementing nutrients with vitamin B6 and the ketogenic diet, which increases the gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA)/glutamate ratio. As such, our study offers dietary approaches in the treatment of this neurodegenerative disease.
- |||||||||| pentylenetetrazole (BTD-001) / Balance Therap
Preclinical, Review, Journal: Animal Models for the Study of Neurological Diseases and Their Link to Sleep. (Pubmed Central) - Aug 28, 2025
Epilepsy models (kainate, pentylenetetrazole, and kindling) provoke hyperexcitability and oxidative damage, compromising both REM and SWS...Sleep disturbances across these neurodegenerative disease models share common underlying mechanisms like oxidative stress, neuroinflammation, and mitochondrial dysfunction. Understanding these pathways may reveal therapeutic targets to improve both motor symptoms and sleep quality in neurodegenerative disorders.
- |||||||||| pentylenetetrazole (BTD-001) / Balance Therap, diazepam / Generic mfg.
Journal: Model-Dependent Attenuation of Seizures by Cinnabar. (Pubmed Central) - Aug 10, 2025
Conversely, no therapeutic effect was found in the maximal electroshock-, pentylenetetrazole-, or kindling-induced seizure model...Furthermore, cinnabar has neuroprotective effects and alleviates comorbid anxiety-like behaviors, while showing no alterations in motor function. Our findings suggest cinnabar's potential as a therapeutic agent for seizure management, via a mechanism associated with the reversal of the hippocampal excitatory/inhibitory imbalance.
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